مقاله درباره مشخصات منگنز

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نام منگنز Manganese از واژه لاتین Magnes (Magnet)گرفته شده است که به خواص مغناطیسی پیرولوزیت (کانه اصلی منگنز) اشاره می کند. منگنز از نظر فراوانی، دوازدهمین عنصر فراوان در پوسته زمین است. کلارک منگنز در ترکیب پوسته جامد زمین 1/0% و در سنگ های مافیک و اولترامافیک تا 5/1% می رسد.منگنز فلزی است به رنگ سفید، خاکستری - نقره ای با هاله مایل به صورتی با نماد Mn، عدد اتمی 25، وزن اتمی94/54، وزن مخصوص 43/7 گرم بر سانتی متر مکعب، سختی6 در مقیاس موس، جلای فلزی، شکننده و غیر قابل انعطاف، نقطه جوش 1962 درجه سانتی گراد و نقطه ذوب 1244 درجه سانتی گراد. منگنز در گروه 7(VII) جدول تناوبی به عنوان فلز Transition Metals بوده و در دوره 4 قرار دارد. این عنصر در طبیعت به صورت خالص تشکیل نمی شود و بیشتر به صورت اکسید، کربنات و سیلیکات وجود دارد. منگنز با فلز کروم در گروه ششم و با فلز آهن در گروه هشتم همجوار بوده و از نقطه نظر شیمیایی شباهت های زیادی به آن دارد. با این وجود، از نظر خواص متالورژیکی منگنز تفاوتهایی با آهن و فلزات نزدیک به آن دارد. چرا که آهن، کبالت و نیکل خواص مفید فیزیکی خودرا به عنوان یک فلز حفظ کرده و در اکثر آلیاژها به عنوان عنصر پایه عمل می‌کنند، درحالی که منگنز چنین نیست. علت عملکرد منگنز در این حالت این است که در شرایط عادی ترتیب قرار گیری اتم های منگنز در ساختمان بلورین آن به گونه ای است که منگنز معمولاً فلزی شکننده و غیر قابل انعطاف و شکل گیری می‌باشد. اما وقتی که منگنز با آهن (و فولاد)، آلومینیوم و سایر فلزات غیر آهنی تشکیل آلیاژ می‌دهد، باعث بهبود خواص فیزیکی آلیاژ می‌شود. منگنز در بسیاری از کانیهای موجود در پوسته زمین وجود دارد و علارغم این که بیش از 300 کانی حاوی منگنز شناسایی شده اند اما تعداد کانیهای منگنزدار دارای ارزش اقتصادی کمتر از 12 می باشد و شامل :پیرولوزیت، پسیلوملان، براونیت، منگانیت و رودوکروزیت اکثراً در کانسارهای رسوبی یا تجزیه ای یافت می شوند.برخلاف فراوانی و توزیع جغرافیایی ذخائر منگنز، 95 درصد از تولید جهان فقط از 7 کشور تولید کننده باشد.از تولید کنندگان اصلی منگنز می توان از: آفریقای جنوبی با 62/3 میلیون تن، گابون با 45/2 میلیون تن، استرالیا با 2 میلیون تن، برزیل با 8/1 میلیون تن و هند با 1/1 میلیون تن نام برد.

بیش از 80 درصد از ذخائر کشف شده جهان در دو کشور اوکراین و آفریقای جنوبی متمرکز شده است. تقریباً هیچ کشور صنعتی جهان همانند آمریکا، ژاپن و کشورهای اروپایی دارای ذخائر قابل توجه منگنز نیستند و باید همگی نیازهای خود را وارد کنند. منگنز همچنین کاربردهایی در حالت غیر فلزی خود دارد و عموماً به حالت اکسید و به دو صورت MnO و MnO2 مصرف می‌شود. کانیهای اصلی منگنز ترکیبی از اکسیدهای آن با عناصر دیگر هستند. به عنوان مثال سیلیکات های اکسید نظیر براونیت که ترکیب عمومی آن بصورت ] 3 MnSiO30O2Mn3 [است. حالت دیگری از منگنز که در طبیعت یافت می‌شود، کربنات می‌باشد. کانی اصلی کربنات منگنز رودوکروزیت 3MnCO است که اغلب همراه با سایر کانیهای منگنز یافت می‌شود. سنگ معدن منگنز معمولاً بعد از تغلیظ داخل کوره بلند شده تا در ساخت چدن از آن استفاده شود. اما کاربردهای مهمتر آن استفاده از سنگ خام به عنوان منبع منگنز در فرآیند تولید فروآلیاژهای منگنز و تولید فلز خالص و یا سایر ترکیبات شیمیایی منگنزدار است. دی اکسیدهای مصنوعی منگنز بخصوص دی اکسید الکترولیتی EMD، احتمالا مهمترین محصول شیمیایی منگنز است. سولفات منگنز 4MnSO ترکیبی است که به عنوان حد واسط در فرآیندهای مختلف یا به عنوان افزودنی به خوراک دام و یا در کودهای گیاهی کاربرد دارند. مجموعه کاربردهای منگنز در صنایعی به جز صنعت فولاد، فقط بخش کوچکی از مصرف منگنز را شامل می‌شود. دی اکسیدهای طبیعی و یا مصنوعی منگنز در باتری های سلولی خشک و یا فریت‌های نرم کاربرد دارند. اکسید، سولفات و اکسی سولفات‌های منگنز (ترکیب شیمیایی و فیزیکی اکسیدها و سولفات‌ها) در خوراک دام و افزودنی و کودهای گیاهی کاربرد دارد. پرمنگنات پتاسیم 4 KMnO ماده ای به شدت اکسید کننده است که در تصفیه آب و نظایر آن کاربرد دارد، در کشور آمریکا‌، آمارها نشان دهنده میزان مصرف منگنز در صنایع غیرمتالورژیکی فقط به اندازه 5 تا 10 درصد کل مصرف است. قسمت اعظم تولید، سنگ با عیار مناسب برای مصارف متالورژیکی است، هر چند که سنگ منگنز تولیدی توسط کشورهای برزیل، گابون، مراکش و هند برای مصارف غیرمتالورژیکی نیز مناسب هستند. بازار منگنز توسط تعداد اندکی شرکت اصلی کنترل شود و اغلب تولید کنندگان اصلی صادر کننده نیز هستند.

از نقطه نظر نحوه تشکیل، ذخائر و انواع کانی‌های منگنز دار بسیار متنوع می‌باشند. منگنز از نظر ژئوشیمیایی یک عنصر لیتوفیل قوی است و خواصی مشابه آهن دارد. هیدروژن تا اندازه ای در فلز منگنز حل می‌شود ولی با آن واکنش نمی دهد. با قرار گرفتن منگنز در معرض اکسیژن، بخصوص در حرارت بالا‌، شرایط تشکیل اکسیدهای منگنز فراهم می‌شود. در بین فلزات واسطه، عنصری است که بیشترین خاصیت اکسید کنندگی را دارد. با وجود پایین بودن میزان منگنز درسنگهای موجود در خشکی، چشمه‌های آب گرم اساساً غنی از منگنز هستند. همچنین با وجود نسبت کم Mn/Fe اکثراً کمتر از1/0 در سنگهای پوسته زمین، اکثر آزمایش های مربوط به چشمه‌های آب گرم، وجود درصد بیشتر منگنز به آهن را نشان می دهند. در اکثر شرایط، منگنز در آبهای زیرزمینی، رودخانه، دریاچه‌ها و دریاها در حالت تحت اشباع است و در مواردی به صورت اکسید ته نشین می‌شود.

مقاله در مورد رفتار سازمانی لاتین Organization studies 14 ص

اختصاصی از ژیکو مقاله در مورد رفتار سازمانی لاتین Organization studies 14 ص دانلود با لینک مستقیم و پر سرعت .

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Organizational studies

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Organizational studies, organizational behaviour, and organizational theory is the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people - as individuals and as groups - act within organizations.

Overview

Organizational studies encompasses the study of organizations from multiple viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook [1] divides these multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present especially in American academia, is between the study of "micro" organizational behavior -- which refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting -- and "macro" organizational theory which studies whole organizations, how they adapt, and the strategies and structures that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an interest in "meso" -- primarily interested in power, culture, and the networks of individuals and units in organizations -- and "field" level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact. In Europe these distinctions do exist as well, but are more rarely reflected in departmental divisions.

Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers' behaviour. As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful.[citation needed] Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational development and success.

The goal of the organizational theorist is to revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life.[2] An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory[3], and is concerned to help managers and administrators.[4]

[edit] History

The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership. Aristotle addressed the topic of persuasive communication. The writings of 16th century Italian philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli laid the foundation for contemporary work on organizational power and politics. In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure based on the division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber wrote about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic leadership. Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal setting and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United States.

Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies is generally considered to have begun as an academic discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890s, with Taylorism representing the peak of this movement. Proponents of scientific management held that rationalizing the organization with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies would lead to increased productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried out.

After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis of how human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the identification of the Hawthorne Effect. This Human Relations Movement focused on teams, motivation, and the actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations.

Prominent early scholars included Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Arjen Blankesteijn, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, and Victor Vroom.

The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics and operations research led to a renewed interest in rationalist approaches to the study of organizations. Interest grew in theory and methods native to the sciences, including systems theory, the study of organizations with a complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy. Influential work was done by Herbert Alexander Simon and James G. March and the so-called "Carnegie School" of organizational behavior.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology and the emphasis in academic study was on quantitative research. An explosion of theorizing, much of it at Stanford University and Carnegie Mellon, produced Bounded Rationality, Informal Organization, Contingency Theory, Resource Dependence, Institutional Theory, and Organizational Ecology theories, among many others.

Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an important part of study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed by

تحقیق درمورد مدیریت دانش لاتین Knowledge management 12 ص

اختصاصی از ژیکو تحقیق درمورد مدیریت دانش لاتین Knowledge management 12 ص دانلود با لینک مستقیم و پر سرعت .

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Knowledge management

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Knowledge Management)

Jump to: navigation, search

Knowledge Management (KM) comprises a range of practices used in an organisation to identify, create, represent, distribute and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organisational processes or practice.

An established discipline since 1991 (see Nonaka 1991), KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, and library and information sciences (Alavi & Leidner 1999). More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM research; these include information and media, computer science, public health, and public policy.

Many large companies and non-profit organisations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their 'Business Strategy', 'Information Technology', or 'Human Resource Management' departments (Addicott, McGivern & Ferlie 2006). Several consulting companies also exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these organisations.

KM efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, and continuous improvement of the organisation. KM efforts overlap with Organisational Learning, and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. KM efforts can help individuals and groups to share valuable organisational insights, to reduce redundant work, to avoid reinventing the wheel per se, to reduce training time for new employees, to retain intellectual capital as employees turnover in an organisation, and to adapt to changing environments and markets (McAdam & McCreedy 2000)(Thompson & Walsham 2004).

Contents

[hide]

1 History

2 Research

2.1 Dimensions

2.2 Strategies

2.3 Motivations

2.4 Technologies

3 See also

4 References

5 External links

[edit] History

KM efforts have a long history, to include on-the-job discussions, formal apprenticeship, discussion forums, corporate libraries, professional training and mentoring programs. More recently, with increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century, specific adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases, expert systems, knowledge repositories, group decision support systems, intranets and computer supported cooperative work have been introduced to further enhance such efforts[1].

In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced which refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level (Wright 2005).

More recently with the advent of the Web 2.0, the concept of knowledge management has evolved towards a vision more based on people participation and emergence. This line of evolution is termed Enterprise 2.0 (McAfee 2006). However, there is still a debate (and discussions even in Wikipedia (Lakhani & McAfee 2007)) whether Enterprise 2.0 is just a fad, or if it brings something new, is the future of knowledge management (Davenport 2008) and is here to stay.

[edit] Research

A broad range of thoughts on the KM discipline exists with no unanimous agreement; approaches vary by author and school. As the discipline matures, academic debates have increased regarding both the theory and practice of KM, to include the following perspectives:

Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally those that enhance knowledge sharing and creation

Organisational with a focus on how an organisation can be designed to facilitate knowledge processes best

تحقیق درمورد رفتار سازمانی لاتین Organization studies 14 ص

اختصاصی از ژیکو تحقیق درمورد رفتار سازمانی لاتین Organization studies 14 ص دانلود با لینک مستقیم و پر سرعت .

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Organizational studies

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Organizational studies, organizational behaviour, and organizational theory is the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people - as individuals and as groups - act within organizations.

Overview

Organizational studies encompasses the study of organizations from multiple viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook [1] divides these multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present especially in American academia, is between the study of "micro" organizational behavior -- which refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting -- and "macro" organizational theory which studies whole organizations, how they adapt, and the strategies and structures that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an interest in "meso" -- primarily interested in power, culture, and the networks of individuals and units in organizations -- and "field" level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact. In Europe these distinctions do exist as well, but are more rarely reflected in departmental divisions.

Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers' behaviour. As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful.[citation needed] Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational development and success.

The goal of the organizational theorist is to revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life.[2] An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory[3], and is concerned to help managers and administrators.[4]

[edit] History

The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership. Aristotle addressed the topic of persuasive communication. The writings of 16th century Italian philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli laid the foundation for contemporary work on organizational power and politics. In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure based on the division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber wrote about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic leadership. Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal setting and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United States.

Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies is generally considered to have begun as an academic discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890s, with Taylorism representing the peak of this movement. Proponents of scientific management held that rationalizing the organization with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies would lead to increased productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried out.

After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis of how human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the identification of the Hawthorne Effect. This Human Relations Movement focused on teams, motivation, and the actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations.

Prominent early scholars included Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Arjen Blankesteijn, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, and Victor Vroom.

The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics and operations research led to a renewed interest in rationalist approaches to the study of organizations. Interest grew in theory and methods native to the sciences, including systems theory, the study of organizations with a complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy. Influential work was done by Herbert Alexander Simon and James G. March and the so-called "Carnegie School" of organizational behavior.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology and the emphasis in academic study was on quantitative research. An explosion of theorizing, much of it at Stanford University and Carnegie Mellon, produced Bounded Rationality, Informal Organization, Contingency Theory, Resource Dependence, Institutional Theory, and Organizational Ecology theories, among many others.

Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an important part of study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed by

دانلود مقاله کامل درباره نرم افزارهای حسابداری لاتین

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An Overview of Accounting Software

Accounting software is an application software that records and processes the accounting transactions contained in the functional modules like account receivable, account payable, trial balance and payroll. It functions is like an accounting information system.

The accounting software can be manufactured by a company (in-house) or the company can buy it from a third party. It may also be a combination of both, that is buying an application software package from a third party and applying some local modifications to it in the company.

There are Various Types of Accounting Softwares Such as:

•Real Estate accounting software

•Tax software

•Mid Size and large business accounting software

•Small business accounting software

•Day care accounting software.

•Construction accounting software

•Church accounting software

•Non-profit organization accounting software

•Accounts payable software

•Accounts receivable software

•General Ledger Accounting Software

•Inventory software

•SAP accounting

•Payroll accounting software

•Government accounting software

Accounting software is made up of a series of modules. These modules are all appropriate in running a successful business.

The Key Modules of Accounting Software are as Follows:

The Core Modules: There are usually 8 core modules. These modules are called core modules because all top accounting software products offer them and these modules are used for an extensive range of businesses. The 8 core modules are:

•General Ledger

•Accounts Payable

•Accounts Receivable

•Payroll

•Inventory

•Order Entry

•Job Cost

•System Manager

Advanced Modules: Apart from core module, there are some additional modules that the accounting software products offer. These modules are designed to fulfill the additional needs of targeted customers. The particular advanced modules that the publisher offers is based on the size of the customers and the industry targeted by them. It is unforgivable to miss core modules but missing an advanced one may not be such a big issue.

E-Commerce Modules: There are 8 categories of E-Commerce modules. These are as discussed below:

•Web Based Requisitioning: Employees can order the supplies via web using this module.

•Web Commerce Catalog: Companies can publish a web catalog using this module.

•Web Customers: On the web, the customers can log in to their account history using this module.

•Web Employee: Employees can maintain personal data & investments on the web using this module.

•Web Financial Statements: Executives can access financial statements on the web using this module.

•Web Orders: Company can accept orders on the web using this module.

•Web Tools: Companies can create web sites and integrate their data using this module.

•Web Portal: Users can operate accounting system on the web using this module.

Development Tools: There number of advanced modules designed to provide the user with the ability to modify the database, data input screens, reports, forms and tables. These development tools basically come under on of the following six categories:

•Customization Tools

•Data Integration Tools

•Data Import Tools

•Forms Designer Tools

•Financial Statement Designer Tools

•VBA Tools

What are the Different Types of Accounting Software?

There are many types of accounting software applications on the market today. Some applications are intended to perform accounting functions for large corporate organizations. Others are meant for personal use. Still other applications fall somewhere in between, performing functions suited to small businesses, as well as those suited to the average person. Available software ranges from the very simple to the very complex, with much variation in price as well.

Accounting software can be useful in such functions as recording and processing accounts receivable and accounts payable transactions. Some software applications can be used in payroll processing, the documentation of tax transactions, and the creation of related reports. Accounting software can also be used in billing clients and customers and debt collection. Some accounting programs even provide for timesheet record keeping, useful for professionals who need to keep track of the hours they work.

Accounting software that is designed for home use is often referred to as personal accounting software. This type of software is used mostly in managing household budgets and expenses. Some personal accounting software makes it possible to download bank account information directly from the Internet for use with the software.

Low-end accounting software is generally used by smaller businesses and can typically be found for sale by a variety of retailers. Usually, software in this class is not highly specific and can be used for a wide range of businesses. This type of accounting program is usually adequate for such uses as generating invoices, reconciling accounts, and handling payroll.

The next step up in the realm of accounting software consists of applications capable of performing a variety of functions important to business accounting. Referred to as mid-market software, accounting applications in this class perform general business accounting functions and frequently include integrated management information systems. Many software applications at this level are capable of providing for accounting in several different currencies. Mid-market accounting software is usually purchased from a dealer.

Higher-end accounting software is more expensive than other types and is usually much more complex. Generally designed for use by large businesses with millions of dollars in transactions, high-end accounting programs usually have very sophisticated features and options. Software in this class also allows for a high level of customization. Typically, higher-end software is sold through a dealer.

Some companies choose to develop their own accounting software, gearing it completely towards their unique needs. Other companies choose to purchase ready-made software packages. Many organizations employ a combination of the two, purchasing software and applying local modifications to make it more efficient

Forty-Four Different Types of Accounting SoftwareMar 012010.Most people believe that accounting software is not a very broad topic. However, it turns out that there are about as many different accounting packages as there are people in a small country. Below is a list of all the different types we could identify. We’ll provide a short summary of each here, but in the future we plan to go more in depth into each category. In fact look for a post on each software category in the future.

Business Accounting Software – This is a pretty broad category within the accounting softwares arena. It basically consists of all of the accounting packages that a business might use. Some popular choices include QuickBooks, Sage, Peachtree, etc. Note that a lot of larger businesses will develop special software just for their business.

General Ledger Accounting Software – Just like it sounds, this software is specifically designed to interact with the general ledger. Most software out there has this integrated within the package, but there are still some places where you can buy just general ledger software.

Manufacturing Accounting Software – Turns out that manufacturers want their own type of accounting software. We’ll dive more into this topic at a later time, but manufacturers need something that will not only keep them in compliance with GAAP, but will also keep track of vital manufacturing information that can give them an edge on their competitors.

Inventory Control Software – This in all honesty is some of the coolest accounting software available. The normal software tracks the information provided by bar codes and scanners. The high-end packages are really awesome; the software actually interacts with RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification) tags to keep track of where your inventory is at all times. Very nice, and very expensive.

Property Software – Like all the categories we are discussing, this one has a lot of different functions. The basic function of this type of software is to be able to keep track of a Landlord’s many properties and tenants while still being able to generate reports that satisfy banks and investors.

Restaurant Accounting Software – Another fun area of accounting. There is actually a whole field of accounting software dedicated to restaurants. Who would have thought? More on this coming in the future.

MRP Software – Stands for material requirements planning software. This software is used to account for the type, quantity, and quality of material that will be necessary for the manufacturing process.