تحقیق درباره مدیریت تغییر

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Change management

There is considerable overlap and confusion between change management, change control and configuration management. The definition below does not yet integrate these.

Change management is an important process, because it can deliver vast benefits (by improving the system and thereby satisfying customer needs), but also enormous problems (by ruining the system and/or mixing up the change administration). Furthermore, at least for the Information Technology domain, more funds and work are put into system maintenance (which involves change management) than to the initial creation of a system. Typical investment by organizations during initial implementation of large ERP systems is 15-20% of overall budget.

In the same vein, Hinley describes two of Lehman’s laws of software evolution: the law of continuing change (i.e. systems that are used must change or automatically become less useful) and the law of increasing complexity (i.e. through changes the structure of a system becomes ever more complex and more resources are needed to simplify it).

The field of manufacturing is nowadays also confronted with many changes due to increasing and worldwide competition, technological advances and demanding customers Therefore, (efficient and effective) change management is also of great importance in this area.

It is not unthinkable that the above statements are true for other domains as well, because usually, systems tend to change and evolve as they are used. Below, a generic change management process and its deliverables are discussed, followed by some examples of instances of this process.

Notes: In the process below, it is arguable that the change committee should be responsible not only for accept/reject decisions, but also prioritisation, which influences how change requests are batched for processing.

مدیریت تغییر

جهان همواره در حال تغییر و تحول است و ادامه حیات ذرات هستی در گرو همین تغییرات است. تغییر در همه پدیده‌های جهان جریان دارد و این تنها به طیف خاصی محدود نیست. تغییر پیش از پیدایش بشر وجود داشته و همیشه نیز وجود خواهد داشت. چه در غیر این صورت، در هر موقعیت و لحظه از زمان، انتقال به زمان و شرایط بعدی ممکن نخواهد بود. بشر همیشه درصدد ایجاد تغییرات مثبت، مهار تغییرات منفی و مبارزه با آثار آن بوده است و سعی نموده است که تغییرات را مدیریت نماید تا از آثار زیان بار آن در امان بماند. سازمان‌ها و بنگاههای اقتصادی نیز در دنیای پرشتاب امروزی دائماً در حال تغییر و تحول هستند و سازمان هایی می‌توانند باقی بمانند که برای بقای خود مزیت رقابتی بوجود آورند. سئوالی که به ذهن متبادر می شود این است که آیا تغییر فرایندی مثبت است یا منفی؟

نگرش به تغییر در دنیای مدیریت، نگرشی سیستمی و مبتنی بر فرآیند است. فرآیند از جایی آغاز و در جایی پایان می‌پذیرد. بنابراین می‌توان گفت که فرآیند مدیریت تغییر، فرآیندی آگاهانه و مبتنی بر رویکردی تعریف شده می باشد. در یک نگرش کلی می‌توان گفت فرآیند مدیریت تغییر از هفت مرحله تشکیل می‌شود که عبارتند از:

1- مرحله تدوین راهبرد و طرح

2- تغییر مستندات و مدارک در هسته مرکزی سازمان

3-  تشخیص جدول‌بندی تغییرات

4- برپایی ساختار و ترکیب‌بندی

5-  آزمایش در محیط قابل کنترل

6-گسترش ترکیب‌بندی تغییر

7- نمایش پایداری و عملکرد

زیرساخت‌های این هفت مرحله، زیرساخت‌های نرم‌افزاری و سخت‌افزاری هستند اما زیرساخت اصلی هر نوع تغییر در سازمان ها در حقیقت انسان ها هستند.

در مواجهه با تغییرات اگر سازمان آمادگی لازم را نداشته باشد که از درون خود، تغییرات را پذیرا باشد و در مقابل آن مقاومت نشان دهد، لاجرم به سمت اضمحلال خواهد رفت.

برای مدیریت در تغییر باید دانست که:

-  چرا تغییر ضروری است؟

-  چه کسی می‌خواهد تغییر رخ دهد؟

-  چه نتایجی مطلوب است؟

-  چگونه تغییر ایجاد می‌شود؟

-  چه کسانی حمایت و چه کسانی مشارکت می‌کنند؟

-  ما باید چه کنیم و در چه مسیری حرکت نمائیم؟

باید اذعان نمود که پیچیدگی پدیده تغییر از آن جهت است که فرآیندی دینامیک بوده و از تعامل متقابل عوامل مختلف بوجود می‌آید و تمامی این عوامل و متغیرهای آن در رابطه علت و معلولی با یکدیگر، ساز و کاری بوجود می‌آورند که درک و تحلیل آن را مشکل می‌سازد. از این رو تشخیص جهت مناسب تغییر دشوار می‌شود.

دو دلیل عمده وجود دارد که ضرورت تغییر در سازمانها را ایجاب می‌نماید:1-   نیاز به تغییرات درونی برای تطبیق با رخ دادهای ایجاد شده در خارج از سازمان.

2-   علاقه به پیش‌بینی توسعه در آینده و یافتن راه های تطبیق با آن.

به هنگام حادث شدن تغییر، عوامل انسانی در سازمان پاسخ‌های متفاوتی از خود نشان می‌دهند.مقاومت افراد در مقابل تغییر یکی از مهمترین مسائل سازمان ها و بنگاه های اقتصادی است زیرا آنها تغییر را نوعی تهدید برای خود می‌دانند و به سادگی پذیرای تحولات و تغییرات نمی‌شوند و غلبه بر این مقاومت و هدایت آن، یکی از مشکل‌ترین وظایف مدیران است. به هر حال تغییر هرچه باشد و مقاومت در مقابل آن به هر شدتی که باشد نیاز به مدیریت و راهبری دارد و مدیر باید افراد را توجیه کرده و آگاهی‌های لازم را به آن ها بدهد.

مقاومت در مقابل تغییرات دو منشاء دارد:

1-   مقاومت‌هایی که منشاء فردی دارند و به ویژگی‌های شخصیتی افراد مربوط می‌شود که عبارتند از: عادت، امنیت، ترس از ناشناخته‌ها، عوامل اقتصادی و بی‌اعتمادی به خود.

2-   مقاومت‌هایی که منشاء سازمانی دارند که عبارتند از: مکانیسم‌های ساختاری، احساس تهدید توسط متخصصان، هنجارهای گروه و سرمایه‌گذاری شغلی.

برای مدیریت تغییر و مقابله با مقاومت کارکنان در برابر تغییر، "رابینز" روش هایی را به شرح زیر پیشنهاد نموده است:

 1-   ارتباطات: مدیر باید با کارکنان ارتباطی موثر برقرار نموده و دلایل ایجاد تغییر را برای آنان بیان

تحقیق درباره Project Management

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Project Management

Project management

Project management is the discipline of organizing and managing resources (e.g. people) in such a way that the project is completed within defined scope, quality, time and cost constraints. A project is a temporary and one-time endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service, which brings about beneficial change or added value. This property of being a temporary and one-time undertaking contrasts with processes, or operations, which are permanent or semi-permanent ongoing functional work to create the same product or service over and over again. The management of these two systems is often very different and requires varying technical skills and philosophy, hence requiring the development of project management.

The first challenge of project management is to make sure that a project is delivered within defined constraints. The second, more ambitious challenge is the optimized allocation and integration of inputs needed to meet pre-defined objectives. A project is a carefully defined set of activities that use resources (money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions, communication, etc.) to meet the pre-defined objectives.

History of project management

As a discipline, project management developed from different fields of application including construction, engineering, and defense. In the United States, the forefather of project management is Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques, who is famously known for his use of the "Gantt" chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management[1], and for his study of the work and management of Navy ship building. His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.

The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, developed by Booz-Allen & Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program[2]; and (2) the "Critical Path Method" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.

At the same time, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE has continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first ever integrated process for portfolio, program and project management(Total Cost Management Framework).

مقاله درباره Sports Management

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موضوع تحقیق:

Sports Management

Can Sports Management Stop Steroid Use?

Sports Management Approach to Stopping the Use of Steroids

In the months prior to this fall, no one could browse through a newspaper sports section; tune a television set to ESPN; or listen to a sports talk radio station without being aware of facts, speculations and opinions regarding the recent revelations about the use of steroids in Major League Baseball.

We have been informed about parents who are outraged at the example steroid use sets for our youth. Journalists speculate about who has lied and what is the degree of alleged falsity in players' statements. Hall of Fame induction potential of alleged and proven steroid users has been debated. Former players have commented on the implications of such behavior. When Rafael Palmeiro returned to the field after his 10-game suspension resulting from a positive test for steroid use, the initial reaction of fans was analyzed as to the ratio of cheering and booing.

The larger question is: What is the solution to stopping what is widely believed to be a dangerous and unethical practice in all of sports? The purpose of this article is to analyze the situation from a sports management standpoint and define the roles professionals have in slowing if not stopping the spread of steroid use in professional sports and, more importantly, collegiate and scholastic sports.

As all of us who have studied the discipline of sports management know, management has been defined in many ways. For the purpose of this essay, the most appropriate definition can be referenced in Francis J. Bridge and Libby L. Roquemore's text Management for Athletics/Sport Administration Theory and Practice, fourth edition:"Management is defined as the achievement of predetermined objectives working through others."

The predetermined objective here is the elimination of steroid use in sports. In order to work through others, a manager should know what responsibilities are designated to whom and what authority, power and expertise each person possesses. The expectation should be for each person to use his or her abilities and resources to the fullest capacity to carry out such responsibilities.

President Bush proclaimed his leadership position in this objective during his January 2004 State of the Union Address when he said:

"The use of performance-enhancing drugs like steroids in baseball, football, and other sports is dangerous...I call on team owners, union representatives, coaches, and players to take the lead...get rid of steroids now."

Bush, the former managing general partner of the Texas Rangers, was accused by Jose Canseco of knowing about players using steroids during his time with the Rangers, and doing nothing. His authority over the situation is actually greater as President of the United States than it was as part owner of a baseball franchise. There is a difference between knowing a player is using steroids and having evidence to prove it. Tangible evidence comes in the form of a drug test, which could not be administered without a provision in the collective bargaining agreement players and owners. This was the case when Bush was in the Rangers' front office.

However, the distribution of steroids as a performance-enhancing substance is illegal and the U.S. Department of Justice, a division of the Executive Branch of the federal government, has the authority to investigate and prosecute violators of such laws. It is not likely a coincidence that the federal prosecutors' high-profile case against Balco laboratories and their alleged dealings with baseball players -- and the subsequent revelations that followed -- occurred just shortly after our nation's chief executive made his January '04 statement.

Steroid use is also a concern for the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA). When steroid use becomes a culture in a professional sport, the competitive advantage it has makes nonuse a threat to a player's career status. Therefore, not having strict rules and testing for steroid use creates an occupational hazard. This is a concern if the current steroid testing policy is not effective.

The professional athletes themselves have an obligation not to encourage steroid use to younger athletes, but this is not because they are perceived as role models. Their obligation is not to subsidize the steroid industry. The development of any unhealthy, performance-enhancing substance cannot occur without financial support. When professional athletes provide business to chemists who develop

تحقیق درباره Project Management

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Project Management

Project Management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. A project is a finite endeavor—having specific start and completion dates—undertaken to create a unique product or service which brings about beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in sharp contrast to processes, or operations, which are permanent or semi-permanent functional work to repetitively produce the same product or service. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management philosophy, which is the subject of this article.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while adhering to classic project constraints—usually scope, quality, time and budget. The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives. A project is a carefully defined set of activities that use resources (money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions, communication, motivation, etc.) to achieve the project goals and objectives.

History of project management

As a discipline, project management developed from different fields of application including construction, engineering, and defense. In the United States, the forefather of project management is Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques, who is famously known for his use of the Gantt chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management[1], and for his study of the work and management of Navy ship building. His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.

The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, developed by Booz-Allen & Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program[2]; and (2) the "Critical Path Method" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.

At the same time, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE has continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first ever integrated process for portfolio, program and project management(Total Cost Management Framework).

In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interest of the project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and

مقاله درباره Project Management

اختصاصی از ژیکو مقاله درباره Project Management دانلود با لینک مستقیم و پر سرعت .

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تعداد صفحات: 11

Project Management

Project Management is the discipline of planning, organizing, and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. A project is a finite endeavor—having specific start and completion dates—undertaken to create a unique product or service which brings about beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in sharp contrast to processes, or operations, which are permanent or semi-permanent functional work to repetitively produce the same product or service. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management philosophy, which is the subject of this article.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while adhering to classic project constraints—usually scope, quality, time and budget. The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives. A project is a carefully defined set of activities that use resources (money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions, communication, motivation, etc.) to achieve the project goals and objectives.

History of project management

As a discipline, project management developed from different fields of application including construction, engineering, and defense. In the United States, the forefather of project management is Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques, who is famously known for his use of the Gantt chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management[1], and for his study of the work and management of Navy ship building. His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.

The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt Charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, developed by Booz-Allen & Hamilton as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program[2]; and (2) the "Critical Path Method" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.

At the same time, technology for project cost estimating, cost management, and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE has continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first ever integrated process for portfolio, program and project management(Total Cost Management Framework).

In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interest of the project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and